| Australian Journal of Educational Technology 1996, 12(2), 94-108. |
AJET 12 |
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander access to higher education has a short history. In 1969 there were 18 Aboriginal students enrolled nationwide, by 1989 this had increased to 3307 (Bourke, 1991). In 1990 the Federal Labour Government passed the Aboriginal Education Act (AEP) which brought together all education sectors across Australia, to set targets for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander participation. Subsequently, by 1995, university attendance by indigenous students rose to 7832. That year, 4532 students commenced higher education, compared to 1750 in 1989. However, recent data suggest that indigenous students' retention and graduation rates are approximately 60% that of other students (Crean, 1995).
At the Indigenous Higher Education Conference in October 1995 the Federal Minister for Employment, Education and Training announced a further $24 million allocation to projects over the next four years to support indigenous participation. The Hon. Simon Crean (p.4) suggested that a key objective 'could involve the development of new facilities where that is essential in remote locations. It will almost certainly involve a more substantial commitment to flexible, open learning approaches to higher education delivery, to take higher education where it is needed'. $1.75 million was earmarked for the development of 'an indigenous electronic network aimed at improving access to existing indigenous education and support services in our universities' (p.4). Following the 1996 Budget, the present Minister, the Hon. Amanda Vanstone indicated that she will proceed with the previous government's initiatives.
Coincidentally, Australian Catholic University's (ACU) revised model for indigenous education following a major course review sits well with the Federal Government's vision as articulated by the former Minister.
A longitudinal study over four years into their experiences of becoming tertiary students (Grant and Trimingham, 1993) showed that participants placed great importance on the social and affective aspects which formed a significant component of their educational experience in residential schools. They highly valued face-to-face instruction and modelling of teaching/ learning processes by lecturers, and prized their relationships with Yalbalinga and lecturing staff and their peers. They drew support and encouragement from these relationships. Research undertaken in 1995 indicated that while students did not wish to spend longer periods away from home, they would like more frequent opportunities to interact with lecturers, and with each other (Grant, 1995).
The limited nature of the University's support for students' off-campus study undoubtedly contributed to the difficulties, and it seemed possible that they may have been further compounded by the nature of the study materials provided students. In the context of discussion about the diversity of learning /information processing styles (eg. Gardner and Hatch, 1989) and their importance to pedagogy; and further, the evidence of an Aboriginal preference for kinaesthetic, imaginal, oral, and cooperative modes (Hughes and More, 1993), the reliance on text-based booklets for individual, off-campus work can be seen as limiting the extent and quality of student learning, and in some instances, their success rate in the course.
Following the review a number of decisions were made, to be implemented in 1996. A key one was that further adjustments to the program's mode of offering to improve support structures for second year and new students and to facilitate more effective and systematic off-campus study would be made. The question as to what the model for supported learning should be comprised a significant proportion of the review committee's deliberations.
A DEETYA report produced in June 1996 notes that educators are recognising the potential of information technologies to enhance learning outcomes. Listing these, the report (online version) cites the National Council for Educational Technology (NCET 1994) which found that effective use of IT can:
The fact that ITs were already being either successfully trialed or fully incorporated in courses offered to remote indigenous communities by universities in South Australia (see George, 1992), Western Australia (Rehn, 1992), and Queensland (Gotts et al 1992, Logan and Sachs, 1992) was very encouraging. They had not so far been used for these purposes in New South Wales.
ACU's plan envisaged the development of local study centres where students could meet regularly with tutors and have access to selected technologies. It depended on the negotiation of access to existing facilities such as schools, community centres and the Open Learning Access Centres (OLACs) already established in some areas by other universities. Such sites could be expected as a minimum to have IT resources such as computers and faxes already in place which could be supplemented if necessary by University purchases. Times of access by students and tutors would need to be individually negotiated once ACU had organised an in-principle agreement and all associated costs would be met by the University. The exception to these arrangements was to be Wilcannia and Bourke, where a combined total of 22 students necessitated the purchase and installation of selected hardware in the three schools to be used as study centres.
Distance from the dominant culture represented by the University may also be necessary for the sustenance of the cultural life of indigenous individuals and communities, and therefore its maintenance should be viewed as a positive (George, 1992). ACU's original and ongoing commitment to a community-based course reflects this understanding. Our model therefore 'need[ed] to be flexible enough to work within both worlds: to fit into the cultural context of the students while fulfilling the requirements of the University' (George, 1992:240).
The specific off-campus educational need of students is to consolidate apply and integrate the learning begun and extended in residential schools, which remain the primary focus for course delivery. Consolidation may require exposure to core and associated course materials and completion of exercises activities, and assessment tasks.
Variable work and other commitments of most students mean that reliable common patterns of off-campus study or contact time do not exist, nor could they be organised, except in a very limited way, across a year group.
Most students highly value opportunities for interaction with university staff and with each other at residential schools, and benefit from the support and sharing of experience which takes place at such times. Individuals may feel isolated in their educational endeavours on return to their home communities in the absence of such interaction.
Many students show a preference for the multi-sensory, oral and cooperative learning modes characteristic of many Aboriginal people (Hughes and More, 1993) and less interest in extensive, solitary reading as a strategy. They demonstrate a 'willingness and capacity to embrace innovation where they recognise it to be of value in their cultural context' (George, 1992:236).
George (1992) points out that flexibility is also usually required of the equipment supporting candidate technologies. Because of limited funds, readily accessible, multifunctional equipment offers an advantage. Computers fit this requirement - they can be used for wordprocessing, to run instructional packages and often CD-ROM, to send/receive email, and to access the World Wide Web with its multi-media versatility, its rapidly multiplying educational resources, and its publishing capabilities. Computers are to be found in key sites in almost any community in the state. ACU's plan began with the acceptance of computers with attached printers and modems as the hardware of first choice.
A reliable means of off-campus interactivity is a major issue for all involved with ACU's program. A number of technologies offer either synchronous or asynchronous interactivity (George, 1992). Tele- and video conferencing are examples of technologies offering synchronicity of interaction and therefore immediate feedback capabilities, but they tie sender and receiver to an agreed, specific time. This can be difficult enough in diadic communication and particularly complicated when large groups of people with disparate commitments are involved. The technology chosen must be flexible enough to allow for the cultural, social and work-related obligations of students and staff (George, 1992). While teleconferencing requires relatively low level equipment and organisation, video conferencing across multiple sites is complex and expensive. Both were in the end eliminated as possibilities.
Email and its variants (listservs, bulletin boards) are asynchronous and therefore adaptable in terms of scheduling, but lack the benefits conferred by immediate feedback (George, 1942). They offer great flexibility as regards the number of people who can be involved in the interaction and the manner in which it can be conducted. They were accepted as appropriate for ACU's program, for both the socio-affective support and educational possibilities they promised. The latter included the transfer of textual and graphical materials between and among participants.
Video and audio taped resources (either commercial or customised) offer limited interactivity between student and material if they are accompanied by for example, appropriate questions and worksheets, but considerable flexibility. Most students are able to access the necessary equipment, and can time use of the resource to suit themselves. They, along with computer applications offer variants of the multisensory experiences which are thought to be mainstays of indigenous learning styles. They were identified as appropriate technological choices for the program. CD-ROMs on the other hand offer greater interactivity, but less flexibility as regards the equipment required - not all computers accessible by students read them. They are also expensive to buy in multiple copies and are very costly and time consuming to produce. Few of those commercially available at present are either specifically content relevant or sound enough in their instructional design to warrant mass purchase for off campus use by individual ACU students.
Fax machines offer asynchronous interactivity and are readily available. They too are thought suitable for use in the program.
Since ACU's course is mixed mode with face-to-face classroom activity carrying most of the pedagogical burden the direct teaching possibilities offered by, for example, audiographics, which in any case require real-time interaction, were ruled out. In Appendix 2, technology options considered and their key characteristics are summarised in tabular form.
Significant organisational problems emerged in two areas as ACU staff sought to implement decisions about the choice and location of the new technology The first was the selection and establishment of local study centres. Work was begun towards the end of 1995 on identifying and negotiating with personnel at potential sites in communities where the then first year students and the applicants for 1996 admission to the course were located. The process mostly relied on networking using contacts established around the state during the writer's years of academic coordination of the program.
Many representatives of the organisations contacted were receptive, at which point the questions became 'what forms of IT were available, what were their specifications, and what arrangements could be made for student access?' A preliminary, and promising list began to take shape. However, consolidation and amendment could not take place until enrolments were completed some way into the 1996 academic year. In the end, it took almost three-quarters of the semester to arrive at an (almost) finalised list of centres. Ongoing modifications included relocations from sites which at a distance had initially appeared suitable but where difficulties on the ground emerged for one reason or another. Appendix 1 shows the location of finalised study centres.
More serious problems developed around the issues of infrastructure and technical support. Negotiations with the University's Director of Information and Communications resulted in a decision to use a commercial Internet Service Provider (ISP) to service the scattered study centres. Open Net, initiated by the Federal government to establish just such services nation wide and offering a 13 1xxx dial-in phone number at local call rates, software, and a toll-free help line, seemed the obvious choice. In any case, our most remote sites at Wilcannia and Bourke had no other ISP available.
After successful trials in Wilcannia, Walgett, and Macksville, we were ready to send the remaining tutors the connection kits, and modems if they were needed. To our consternation, late in March 1996 we were notified of Open Net's decision to close down its ISP operations at the end of May. Their cited reasons were that Telstra was changing the price structure for 131xxx calls, and some unresolved funding guarantees by the Federal Government. A few more sites managed to get online before the closure. ACU students were the victims of political decisions made in a highly volatile and competitive telecommunications market.
There commenced another round of discussions about provision of Internet services. The Faculty of Education was fully committed to maintaining and extending student access. Ultimately, ACU agreed to become the service provider, as its own infrastructure had increased in capacity in the interim, and more staff had been employed to provide technical support. A 1800xxx freecall was established for students and tutors dialling long distance. ACU email addresses were set up for all students and tutors, and several support people in one or two communities. Extensive instructions were produced and sent to tutors to guide the reconfiguration of Open Net software to ACU's specifications. Two thirds of the way into the second semester, of a total of 22 sites - 19 around NSW, 1 in Queensland and 2 in Sydney - 14 had achieved connectivity.
The main factors accounting for the failure to achieve 100% connectivity appear to be: first, while they had agreed in principle to undertake the task, some students' tutors were uncertain about or unwilling to tackle admittedly the quite difficult task for the technologically inexperienced of installing and configuring the necessary software. Second, access to some sites proved more difficult than expected. Third, some students were reluctant to liaise with their tutors over the task of installation.
Where connectivity was easily achieved the following factors were important: first, highly supportive key personnel (eg. the Principal at a school used as a site) who go out of their way to ensure successful access and installation. Second, a good relationship of some duration with tutors which makes negotiations easier (eg. as with two people who have participated as regional tutor coordinators as well as tutors over a number of years with the program). Third, on the spot organisation of the site and connectivity by ACU staff (eg. the lecturer in Information Technology who set up the study centres in Wilcannia and Bourke).
Perhaps one-third of the lecturers were able to integrate IT-based tasks and activities into the work students were expected to undertake at home and at residential schools. The tasks required use of email, the World Wide Web, and audiotaping. Although expectations had to modified because of the difficulties with connectivity and study centres outlined above, a number of the activities were successfully undertaken during residential schools. Once the issue of the suitability of an IT had been resolved, lecturer familiarity and confidence with the available technologies influenced whether or not they adopted them in their subject units.
Most ACU staff have themselves only recently been exposed to the newest forms and vary greatly in their attitude to and acceptance of them. An additional factor is the general level of pressure under which academics operate: involvement in the course is just one area of responsibility to be juggled with many others, and the innovative use of new, perhaps unfamiliar technologies requires a great deal of time spent on careful planning and production.
CAUT grant funds were offered to assist those lecturers prepared to create IT and other kinds of learning resources. To date, the following projects are complete, or nearly so:
http://www.acu.edu.au/atsi/yalbalinga/welcome.htm
Reflection on the experience of trialing the model during 1996 suggests these recommendations:
It's a brand new venture for Aboriginal students. For once they're getting in at the embryonic stage of development. Aboriginal people shouldn't have to come into this new area with a deficit.' (Jim Miller, March 1996; verbal communication)
The Department of Employment, Education, Training, and Youth Affairs, which awarded the National Teaching Development (CAUT) Grant whose use has been described.
Aboriginal advisers James Miller, Frances Dobie, Darryl French, Albert Torrens, for many helpful and encouraging comments about the model; and Mary Button for advising on and assisting with the production of one of the video resources.
ACU staff, tutors and students who participated in the trial of the model throughout 1996 and graciously coped with the strains and difficulties.
Crean, S. (1995). Opening address at the Indigenous Higher Education Conference, The Future of Indigenous Education. Canberra.
Gardner, H. and Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4-10.
George, R. (1992). Identification of suitable distance education technologies in the Anangu Teacher Education Program. In J. G. Hedberg and J. Steele (eds), Educational Technology for the Clever Country: Selected papers from EdTech'92, 236-243. Canberra: AJET Publications. http://cleo.murdoch.edu.au/gen/aset/confs/edtech92/george.html
Gotts, A. et. al. (1992). The Remote Area Teacher Education Project (RATEP): An initiative in interactive multimedia technology. Publication details unknown.
Grant, M. (1995). Students' views on the mode of offering of the Assoc. Dip./B. Teach.: Survey findings (unpublished).
Grant, M. and Trimingham, C. (1993). Mature age Aboriginal students: Perspective transformation and gender. Published papers, 4th. National Conference on Contemporary Issues in Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Studies. Cairns.
Hughes, P. and More, A. (1993). Aboriginal ways of learning and Aboriginal learning patterns. Draft paper presented to the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples Education Wollongong.
Gateways - Information Technology in the Learning Process (1996). A DEETYA Project of National Significance. http://learning.edna.edu.au/learnit/
Logan, L. and Sachs, J. (1992). Using technology to increase access to teacher education for Aborigines and Islanders in remote areas of Australia. Paper presented to the 12th International Society for Teacher Education Conference, Armidale.
McConnochie, K. and Farrow, R. (1993). Aboriginal access: What does it Mean? HERDSA News, Vol.10, No. 3.
Rehn, G. (1992). The Western Australian networks for learning trial: Overcoming the problems of distance. In J. G. Hedberg and J. Steele (eds), Educational Technology for the Clever Country: Selected papers from EdTech'92, 17-30. Canberra: AJET Publications. http://cleo.murdoch.edu.au/gen/aset/confs/edtech92/rehn1.html
This is a revised version of a paper presented at the ERA-AARE Joint Conference, Singapore, 25-29 November 1996.
| Vehicle | Who can receive | What it can do | Storing signal | Cost |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Video conference (via terrestial) |
Sites connected to an ISDN network, and a suitable space to locate delicate and expensive equipment. | Transmission between connected sites - flexible. Teaching/ tutoring/ student activity/ Administration. | Can be recorded at the originating and receiving sites for later distribution and/or replay if required. | Expensive encoding and decoding equipment needed at each site. Costs proportionate to number of sites linked - pay as you use. |
| 2. Computer data transmission 2.1. Internet (email, newsgroups, bulletin board, databases, library catalogues, multimedia, etc.) 2.2. Non Internet (email, newsgroups, mailing lists, etc) |
Teacher and tutor. Teacher and student. Student to student (ie, one to one or one to several). |
Allow rapid communication once telephone connection has been made and Internet access organised. | Could be stored on disk but probably not necessary. | Requires computers and modems at each point plus access to telephone. In some instances a commercial Internet service provider will be required. |
| 3. Computer based 3.1. Specialist software (eg Electronic Classroom; audiographics). 3.2. Multimedia (combines text, graphics, sound, video, animation). |
3.1. Central site to those connected by dedicated telephone lines.
3.2 Any computer user. |
3.1. Can be used for teaching purposes - a teacher to a number of students. 3.2. Can be used by individual students, is interactive and addresses a range of learning styles. |
3.1. Can be stored on disk 3.2. May be stored on and accessed form a disk, file server, CD-ROM or the Internet. |
3.1. Requires computers and modems plus appropriate software and graphics tablets. 3.2. Requires a computer with a CD-ROM drive, or access to a file server or the Internet. High quality multimedia is extremely expensive to develop. |
| 4. Fax to fax | All students with access to fax machine. | Send and receive handwritten typed, graphic or photographic (b/w) information. | Print originals as a basis. Intermediate messages, assignments need to be photocopied for durability. | Requires fax machines at distribution and receipt points. Ongoing costs, fax transmission charges. |
| 5. Teleconf- erencing |
All students with access to a telephone. | Provide personal audio support for isolated students who can also consult each other through 'bridge'. | Recording is possible but judged unnecessary in most instances. | Cost of telephone installation and hire plus ongoing STD charges. 1800 numbers will keep those costs with host. |
| 6. Print supplemented by audio, video, still photos et al. | Any student postal service. Needs appropriate replay equipment. Respond by mail and/or phone, fax, et al. | Deliver materials (eg audio tape, video tape, disc, print) developed at a central point. | Has been copied from master. | Expensive to produce initially but easily able to be copied in bulk. Updating costs variable. |
[ Note: Queries/problems from tutors and students - use fax, phone, electronic mail or mail for support from central or regional point ]
Adapted from Miles, P. (1992-93). Communications Technology Feasibility Study. Bachelor College.
| Author: Mary Grant teaches Psychology and Educational Psychology at Australian Catholic University, Sydney Campus. She was Academic Coordinator of ACU's regional Aboriginal education program from 1989 to 1993. Email m.grant@mary.acu.edu.au
Please cite as: Grant, M. (1996). Development of a model using information technology for support of rural Aboriginal students off-campus learning. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 12(2), 94-108. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet12/grant.html |