International
Journal of
Educational
Technology

Highly Interactive and Effective Online Learning Environments for Teacher Professional Development

Sandra R. Levin, University of Illinois;
Gregory L. Waddoups, Brigham Young University;
James Levin, University of Illinois;
James Buell, University of Illinois

Abstract

New technologies make possible highly interactive learning environments. We report here on a two year study of an online program for teacher professional development that addressed the issue of what dimensions determine effectiveness of online environments. Through the use of survey data from twenty-six online students and in-depth case studies of four students, we identify five dimensions that contribute to effective online learning: 1) relevant and challenging assignments, 2) coordinated learning environments, 3) adequate and timely feedback from instructors, 4) rich environments for student-to-student interaction, and 5) flexibility in teaching and learning. Our use of these dimensions has helped us to create robust learning environments for these students, themselves K-12 teachers and administrators, who then took leadership roles in the use of educational technologies for systemic education reform in their classrooms, schools, and districts.

Online courses and programs are growing in number, yet some early reports have stated that students are not satisfied with the quality of these courses (Carnevale, 2000; Weiner, 2000). Many colleges and universities are recording lectures; transferring their syllabi and multiple choice tests to the web; and expecting students to listen, read, and learn with little instructor feedback.

In June 1998, the College of Education at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign initiated CTER OnLine, a Master of Education (Ed.M.) program offered in an online format for practicing teachers. Courses focus on three areas of interest to schools today: Curriculum, Technology, and Education Reform (CTER) <http://cter.ed.uiuc.edu>. In the CTER OnLine program, students take five required and three elective courses over a two-year period.

What does it take to provide a highly interactive and effective online learning environment? Faculty members at the University of Illinois have been exploring this question by developing and evaluating an online Master of Education program for practicing K-16 teachers and administrators. We address this question, drawing upon course and program evaluation data collected over a two-year period, examining the underlying elements needed to provide an effective online learning environment for teacher and administrator professional development.

Video clips and text translations are provided throughout this online paper to support our conclusions. These video interviews of CTER students were conducted shortly after graduation. RealPlayer 7.0 or higher is required to view the video segments. Links to text transcriptions have also been included for those unable to view the videos.

In this paper, we report on the process of teaching and learning in highly interactive and effective online learning environments by providing an overview of various aspects of the CTER OnLine program and looking closely at one course, "Technology and Educational Reform," (CI399TER) offered in the summer semester of 1999, midway through the two-year program. This course was rated highest (4.8 on a scale of 1=low and 5=high) of all the courses in the online program based on two survey questions asked on all on-campus and off-campus course evaluations.

In the CTER OnLine Program, faculty members considered three basic elements: online course development, online course instruction, and tools necessary to provide both. We started course development with the premise that each course is unique in its content; therefore, the technology tools that are used must be chosen to fit the teaching style of the instructor and the learning styles of the students. Before developing a course online, CTER faculty members meet to discuss the current communication tools available and what tools can easily be used by both instructor and students. The levels of computer expertise of the instructor and students are also taken into consideration when making these decisions. Next, the faculty members discuss the course content to see which tools might work best for that particular course. For example, if an instructor wants to include a discussion on the readings for her course, a web-based conferencing system that has both synchronous and asynchronous technologies would be used. If guest lectures will be incorporated, we would ask the instructor if the guest will be using live broadcasts, pre-recorded digitized audio or video segments and if there will be a question and discussion segment following the lecture.

CTER OnLine instructors combined multiple methods of instruction to enhance student learning (Levin, Levin, & Waddoups, 1999). The framework developed for online asynchronous discussions allowed students flexibility to participate on their own time. Students teaching in K-12 settings were given the opportunity to implement the coursework into their classroom practice. Simulations were used to provide experience when dealing with sensitive topics and issues. Various grouping arrangements allowed students to learn from one another. These multiple instructional methods were used to also demonstrate how current theories of learning can be incorporated into educational practice, and indeed, many CTER students have since incorporated these methods into their own teaching practices.

CTER instructors used the WebBoard® web-based conferencing system for asynchronous discussions and synchronous text chat sessions. Individual email and group reflectors were also used for one-to-one or one-to-group correspondence. RealPlayer® was used to stream audio and video files. Text transcriptions of audio files were provided for hearing impaired students. Audio narrated PowerPoint® presentations were created for some topics. Tapped In, a multi-user object-oriented environment (MOO) developed and coordinated by SRI International, provided interactions between the CTER students and educators across the country (Schlager, Fusco, & Schank, 2001 in press). A specialized tool, known as CTERbase/TEbase, was used to help faculty provide individual feedback to students, grade assignments, and publish exemplary work on the web (Levin, Buell, & Levin, 2000).

The instructor of the CI399TER course used a combination of WebBoard (for both synchronous and asynchronous text communication), email, group reflectors, RealPlayer (for streaming audio), text translations of the audio files, and CTERbase. Synchronous chats, telephone calls and email messages were used for office hours. Asynchronous communication was used for reflection on readings and group discussions. Two guest speakers participated with pre-recorded interviews with the instructor. One interview was recorded directly into a digitized format. The second interview was pre-recorded on audio tape at an international conference where the instructor had the opportunity to meet with well-known experts in the field of technology and education reform. This tape was then transferred to a digitized format. The audio files were placed on a streaming media server. The text files were transcribed and linked to the syllabus. The instructor used a combination of a printed textbook and materials on the web in her class. Students formed small discussion groups to debate a weekly issue. The course was project-based and required students to write a proposal to institute some new technology or educational reform effort. Proposals were written according to a Request for Proposals (RFP).

Many researchers have discussed the need to address issues of quality and effectiveness of online teaching (Campbell, 1997; Findley, 1997; Powers, 1997). Over the two-year-long formative program evaluation, we looked for evidence that supports quality instruction and effective online learning. Survey data was collected from all twenty-six students in the program. These surveys included a pre-survey at the beginning of the program, a second survey midway through the program, and a third survey conducted at the end of the program. Students also completed a course evaluation at the end of each course. Four of the twenty-six students also participated in a two-year case study. Data collected in the case study included interviews, site visits to the practicing teachers' classrooms, and collection of their electronic communication and completed assignments (Waddoups, 2000).

Students are more engaged in an activity when it is personally relevant to them. CTER OnLine is a project-based program. While each course focuses on a different topic, students have the opportunity to create projects that are useful to them in their classroom. In the CI399TER course, students had two project options: 1) to write a proposal that would provide funding to incorporate some type of educational reform into their classroom, school or district, or 2) to revise their curriculum including innovative uses of technology into classroom practice based on research the students were reading. The readings, written assignments and major project for CI399TER were viewed by the students as relevant and challenging, as indicated by their responses on the course evaluation. Mean scores were calculated on the total number of 26 responses on a scale of 1-5 with 1 representing strongly disagree to 5 indicating strongly agree. Table 2 includes the questions and mean score values related to relevant and challenging assignments.
 

Course Survey Question	Mean Score
I have learned a great deal in this course	4.48
The amount of work required was reasonable for the credit earned	4.96
I accomplished a lot in this course	4.68
I am more interested in the subject area as a result of this course	4.68
The course helped me understand key principles in the field	4.68
The technologies used in this course supported my learning	4.88

Table 2: CI399TER Survey questions related to relevant and challenging assignments. Scale: Strongly disagree = 1; Strongly agree = 5

Students repeatedly asked that the assignments, discussions, and readings be relevant to the work they are doing in their schools and classrooms. Here one student describes what he found that worked with CTER OnLine.
Transcript

One of the hallmarks of good teaching, regardless of medium, is helping students connect learning to their lives.
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Relevance is important to the students in the CTER program because they are practicing teachers who see their participation in this program as an extended professional development opportunity. Relevance in the online context should be thought of as helping teachers prepare curriculum and develop practices directly relevant to their teaching while also expanding their ideas about what is and should be considered relevant in their professional practice.
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The most popular instructional activities in the CTER Online program are the assignments that ask students to create and evaluate projects that can be used immediately in their own classrooms. Survey and interview data indicate that the projects they developed or evaluated for their own professional practice were the most useful. This captures the idea of relevance in its most basic form.
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Throughout the entire program, students were asked to reflect on what they read and learned. In addition, some reflective questions were asked on the Program's post-survey. The following quotes represent a small sampling of how other students responded to the question: How has the CTER program reformed your teaching practice?

What the students tell us

"I am a technology coordinator and it is my job to help the classroom teachers integrate technology into their classrooms. It has given me the experience and knowledge to do a better job of integrating computers into the schools classrooms. The use of reform methods such as project-based learning and constructivist style of teaching is now a part of the teacher in-services."

 

"I think it has made me a better teacher overall, by learning various theories. I have also used more technology applications."

 

"I think I am more aware of the impact of technology in the classroom. I am more comfortable to include components using technology across subject areas. This has occurred due to the enormous amount of time I have spent on the computer."

 

"I think that I have become a more well-rounded individual and have learned a tremendous amount from my peers and professors. I have learned how to successfully integrate technology into the classroom as well as many wonderful classroom management techniques."

 

"I think a lot more about the "why's" and "how's" of education: Why do I do what I do? Why do I feel these are the best practices? If they aren't, why do I continue with them? How can I promote change in my building/district?"

Additional evidence of quality in online instruction can be found when students expand their notions of what is relevant to their professional practice. The Internet provides a particularly helpful environment for connecting practicing teachers to other educators to collaborate on ideas that are relevant.

Many teachers in the CTER online program were initially content to focus on curriculum projects for use in their classrooms. However, in the CTER Online program we have provided them with opportunities to engage in activities that have expanded their notion of what is relevant for their teaching activities. Assignments are not relevant simply because teachers can use them in their classroom, but because teachers can see that engaging in the assignment will provide an opportunity to engage in practices and develop skills that may be relevant for a teacher's professional practice.

One example of developing new skills was evident in the CI399TER class that required students to write a proposal describing the implementation of one or more aspects of educational reform they would like to institute in their school. Many of the students had never written a proposal for outside funding and were not too confident of their ability, but in the end, a number of the proposals were funded, to the delight of the students and school administrators.

We have also included assignments that are not directly applicable in the classroom, but engage our students in learning activities that extend their thinking of what it means to be a teacher. An example of expanding the notion of relevance can be found in a simulation that was used in a course about Ethical and Policy Issues in Information Technologies. A fictitious student named Suzie created web pages containing materials that would be considered improper for a school setting. CTER students were asked to reflect on how they would handle the situation and to discuss issues raised with their peers. While controversial at times, the activity heightened their awareness of information on the Internet and its potential impact on a school setting. For their final project, students developed a set of Educators' Guides on a number of issues centrally affecting the ways in which new information and communication technologies are changing schools today. The topics include: Access Issues, Credibility and Web Evaluation, Free Speech vs. Censorship, Privacy, Commercialism, Intellectual Property, Copyright, and Plagiarism, and Computer Crime and Technology Misuse. These guides are available online at: http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/wp/.

Assignments were not only relevant, but also challenging. It takes a motivated, self-disciplined student to succeed in an online program. We have included an example of one student's thoughts on the subject.
Transcript

In addition to relevance, students expressed the desire for classes that are clearly organized so they do not have to search for the assignments and wonder whether they are following the schedule. This is particularly important in online courses, because students can follow the class only to the extent that there is a relatively clear structure that has some level of cohesion. What this typically means is making it more explicit how the class fits together and making an overt attempt to address issues of organization to the students. Being more explicit can be as simple as placing dates throughout the syllabus instead of, or in addition to, using more generic terms such as Week 1 or Week 2 and using consistent headers and terminology when using multiple software tools.

What we are suggesting is that a coordinated learning environment is one in which the threaded asynchronous communication tool, the syllabus, and the homework completion system are connected. The first week's topic described in the syllabus should be directly linked to and easily identified in the asynchronous communication tool used for discussions for that week and instructions for the assignment should be clear and concise.
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We have included some example web pages from EdPsy490 TER (a revised version of the CI399TER course) that demonstrate the connections between applications. Several survey questions asked at the end of the course were aimed at this dimension of a coordinated learning environment and are listed with their mean scores in Table 3.
 

Course Survey Question	Mean Score
The technologies in this course were used effectively	4.68
The technology facilitated my interactions with classmates	4.4
The technology used in this course supported the goals of the class	4.76
The technologies used in this course were appropriate	4.84
It was easy to use the technology in this course	5.00
The technology in this course worked well	4.84
I received adequate technical support in this course	4.67
There were few difficulties in accessing the technology used in this course	4.76
I received the training needed to use the technology in this course	4.68
The course objectives were clear	4.80
The course was well organized	4.96

Table 3. Mean scores of the coordinated learning environment for the CI399TER course. Scale: Strongly disagree = 1; Strongly agree = 5

Another element of coordinated online learning environment is providing technical support. We have found that there are three levels of technical support needed in an online course for both faculty and students: development, training and ongoing support as shown in Table 4.
 

Levels of Support	Faculty Support	Student Support
Development	Deciding which tools are most appropriate to use in the course and assisting in the development of the course in an online format
Training	Initial training in how to use the tools	Initial training in how to use the tools and access course content
Ongoing	Assistance when using some communication tools	Technical support with access, hardware and software issues during courses through email, telephone, and voice mail.

Table 4: Kinds of technical support for faculty and students to create coordinated learning environments.

First, there are a number of decisions that an instructor faces when moving to an online environment. The instructor must consult with other instructors and technical support staff on which tools are currently in use and which would be most appropriate for the type of course offered. Once tools are selected, an instructor must gather and create the course materials. Often, technical support staff is needed to convert files from one format to another, digitize video and audio segments, transcribe audio files for students with hearing disabilities, and create usernames and passwords for student access.

Our students ask to see all course materials available at the beginning of the class so that they may pace the workload according to their own schedules. This is very often different than the way most university professors prepare for face-to-face instruction normally done just prior to each class meeting. Not only are professors changing the way they prepare and teach, but also they are learning how to use these new tools. This preparation and training takes a considerable amount of time.

Instructors also need ongoing support when using some of the latest technology tools. When audio or video streaming is used, technical support staff must be available to set up equipment, manage the cameras and microphones, and be on-hand in case of a technical failure. Even when synchronous text chat is used, the instructor is busy discussing course content and relies on the support staff to handle other questions through a "whisper" command that provides private conversations during a chat session.

Students also need to learn how to use the software tools that will be used throughout the program. For CTER OnLine, this support is initially provided in a face-to-face orientation meeting just prior to the beginning of the first course. Technical support continues throughout the program dealing with a variety of issues from access to consultations about hardware purchases and software upgrades. This type of support is provided through a combination of email, a technical support help telephone line, and voice mail that can be accessed by the support staff in the evenings and on the weekends. Providing technical support throughout the program is essential to handling day-to-day problems that arise with the use of technology. We continually monitored student's technical support needs and requested feedback at the end of each course. If any problem developed, we addressed it as quickly as possible.
Transcript

The CTER OnLine program supports two half-time graduate assistants to provide technical support to both faculty and students throughout the year. In some cases, faculty members have requested a teaching assistant to help with grading and online discussions.

Providing a coordinated online learning environment also involves developing a sense of community between the instructor and students. If provided with some face-to-face interactions throughout the program, faculty and students get to know one another on a more social level which alleviates the sense of isolation that is often felt in distance education courses.
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Adequate and timely feedback: teacher-student interaction

We have found that providing adequate and timely feedback to students is another important element of online teaching. Because students are remote, it is important to develop mechanisms that provide feedback to students on their progress in a timely manner.

There are three levels of feedback that are necessary in the online classroom. These include online office hours, instructor response to individual and group work, and feedback on individual assignments. To successfully provide these layers of feedback in the online course the instructor must have, or develop, a good facility using different types of communication technologies.

Conducting online office hours is one way in which student-teacher interactivity can be accomplished. In the CTER Online program, we have utilized two-way synchronous text chat spaces and a combination of one-way streaming audio used by the instructor and synchronous text chat used by students for the purpose of office hours. Office hours are used as a time for students to interact with the instructor in real-time, to ask questions about the assignments, or to clarify a topic in the readings. While the questions tend to be specific, the entire office hour is archived and all students can view the chat discussion at a later time. Students have responded that the consistent use of online office hours has helped them feel more connected with the instructor.

We have noticed two patterns of instructor response related to individual and group assignments and discussions. One form could be described as individual and immediate response and the other as archived response. Individual and immediate response refers to the instructor responding to student assignments or discussion messages as they occur in the ongoing discussion. Archived response is used when the instructor reads all the students messages (for the day or week), then replies to the entire class in one message addressing the points he/she would like to make.

Another way in which students and faculty stay connected is through individual feedback on student assignments. CTER instructors have provided individual feedback on student assignments through a specialized tool we developed called CTERbase. Students submit their assignments or enter URLs pointing to their assignments, and the instructor can review and reply back to the students on what they might want to consider changing before submitting the final version. Instructors can also provide feedback in a more public forum, like WebBoard, so that all the students can see the instructor's comments and modify their work accordingly. Providing general feedback is more efficient for the instructor, however, some students have reported their preference for individual feedback.

The instructor in CI399TER used individual and immediate responses throughout the course in the WebBoard discussions, for email messages, and for feedback in CTERbase when students were writing the different stages of their proposals. Table 5 shows the survey questions related to the topic of providing adequate and timely feedback.
 

Course Survey Question	Mean Score
I received constructive feedback on assignments and tests	4.8
The instructor had a strong command of the subject matter	4.88
The instructor effectively used technology to facilitate course discussions	4.84
The instructor responded quickly to my inquiries	5.00
There were positive interactions between instructor and students	5.00

Table 5: C&I 399TER Mean scores related to instructor-student feedback. Scale: Strongly disagree = 1; Strongly agree = 5

Rich environments for student-to-student interaction

Another indicator of quality in an online course is the creation of highly interactive learning environments for interaction between and among students.
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In the CTER Online program we have used a variety of methods to organize group and one-to-one student interactions.
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Three methods we have used to form groups include student-selected, topic-selected, and instructor-selected groups. Each method offers both positive and negative results. Student-selected groups allow students who know one another or work in close proximity to work together on group activities. When students are able to choose their own groups, they have arranged meetings at a member's home or local pizza restaurant to work on assignments.
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Students have also commented on levels of peer support by describing their work habits in an online environment.
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On the other hand, students who are constantly given the chance to self-select group members tend to pick friends or individuals they know, which actually narrows their scope of learning, minimizing opportunities to share ideas with students in other geographic areas. Some instructors have allowed students to choose a topic of interest and formed groups based on that topic. Depending on the course content, topic-selected groups can produce a mix of interests among the group members or narrow their scope of learning as in the self-selected group. Instructors have also assigned members to groups to ensure that each group has a particular mix of interests. While this grouping method can provide a wide range of expertise among its members, it can also lead to more tension or personality conflicts. We have found that using different methods for selecting groups throughout the course provides a good opportunity for students to work with different students to minimize negative group dynamics.

In the CI399TER course, students were provided with whole class and small group asynchronous discussion spaces and synchronous chat spaces. They chose a proposal topic that best fit their professional teaching needs and had the option of working alone or in small self-selected groups on their major projects. If a student wrote an individual proposal, he or she was asked to join another small group for weekly discussions.

To maximize communication in an online environment, it is important to provide online conferencing space or conference call opportunities for each group to communicate among themselves. Instructors can provide simple group assignments in the beginning that build upon subsequent assignments and become more challenging toward the end of the course. Another effective strategy includes heavy instructor involvement in group activities early in the semester with less involvement as time goes on.

Research on distance education has repeatedly pointed to a high drop-out rate related to students feeling isolated from a social setting (Keegan, 1980; Kember, 1989). We have attempted to address this issue by providing a number of activities that foster student to student discussion. Students enrolled in our online courses come to the university for a multi-day face-to-face orientation prior to their first online course. This time is provided to train students to use the software tools needed to participate in the program while offering time for students to socialize and get to know one another. Students share common goals, strengths and interests with other classmates in face-to-face and online activities. Chat and online conferencing space is provided so students can interact on a social level throughout the course. Students are also encouraged to provide peer reviews throughout the program.
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Fostering flexibility in teaching and learning

Many students registering for online distance education courses are interested in the flexibility this medium of education provides.
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However, students must be aware of the challenges that exist as well.
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Therefore, another important element of quality online instruction is the careful balance of asynchronous and synchronous communication--to foster flexibility in learning. For an instructor this means choosing the appropriate technologies for the task they are trying to accomplish. Indeed, the technology and task fit is an important principle for those designing and delivering online distance education courses. One model we have used successfully combines the use of asynchronous technologies to facilitate much of the classroom interactions and synchronous communication to facilitate small group interactions and course office hours.

Of course, the right balance between flexibility and the need for interactivity will vary with each course. In some cases, an instructor may use all asynchronous communication for classroom and group communication and limit synchronous interactions to online office hours. At other times, weekly real-time video or audio conferencing may be most appropriate for the topic.

In many cases, this flexibility helped the students to juggle the challenges of everyday life.
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Another consideration for flexibility in learning can be described as flexibility in teaching. Both synchronous and asynchronous communication can be accomplished effectively by instructors regardless of location. This is most evident when instructors travel to conferences to report on their research. They can now pre-record an audio or video presentation for the students to view at their convenience. With a laptop computer and telephone line, instructors can continue to respond to student email or online discussions when away from their offices. In addition, these new technologies offer the flexibility universities sometimes need to hire adjunct faculty to teach online courses or more easily involve experts in a particular field to participate as a guest lecturer or discussion participant.

In the case of CI399TER, the instructor was scheduled to present at a conference located in a distant city during the month-long course. Using a laptop and network connection, the instructor was able to follow the WebBoard discussions and provide feedback between sessions or in the evening to her students.

Students reported on their accomplishments as a result of the CTER OnLine Master of Education program in a CTER Yearbook 2000. These responses can be viewed at: http://cter.ed.uiuc.edu/Graduation/Yearbook2000/index.html. Some of the CTER student projects can be seen at http://cter.ed.uiuc.edu/best-of-cter.html.
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Conclusion

We have found that the following dimensions of effective online instruction are particularly relevant for providing educational opportunities for practicing teachers.

1. relevant and challenging assignments
2. coordinated learning environments
3. adequate and timely feedback: teacher-student interaction
4. rich environments for student-to-student interaction
5. fostering flexibility in teaching and learning

The Internet and other communication technologies provide educators with a wide array of educational tools to create highly interactive and effective learning environments. The question for many is how best to utilize these technologies. In this paper, we have described one model for developing an online learning environment that promotes high levels of interaction among students as they learn to integrate technologies into their K-12 or in-service classrooms. We have suggested that there are many issues to consider when developing online learning environments, including making assignments relevant to teachers' experiences, constructing coordinated learning environments, providing timely feedback, creating rich environments for interaction, and providing for flexibility by fostering anytime anywhere teaching and learning. Paying attention to these dimensions has led to the creation of robust learning environments for CTER students to become leaders in the use of educational technologies in their classrooms, schools, and districts.

Campbell, J. O. (1998). Asynchronous learning networks: Evaluating anytime/anywhere learning. Retrieved November 21, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.parshift.com/OtherWise5.htm

Carnevale, D. (2000). What Makes an online course succeed? Not everyone agrees, a study finds. Chronicle of High Education. Oct. 12, 2000. http://www.chronicle.com/free/2000/10/2000101201u.htm

Findley, B. (1997). Strategies for effective distance education, Contemporary Education, 68, 118-120.

Kember, D. (1989). A longitudinal process model of dropout from distance education, Journal of Higher Education, 60, 278-301.

Levin, S. R., Buell, J. G., & Levin, J. A. (2000). The TEbase initiative: Research, development and evaluation for educational reform. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 16(3), 6-11.

Levin, J., Levin, S. R., & Waddoups, G. (1999). Multiplicity in learning and teaching: A framework for developing innovative online education. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32(2), 256-269.

Levin, S. R., & Buell, J. G. (1999). Merging technology into teacher education: Technology tools and faculty collaboration. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 16(1), 7-14.

Powers, S.M. (1997). Designing an interactive course for the internet, Contemporary Education, 68, 194-196.

Schlager, M., Fusco, J., & Schank, P. (2001, in press). Evolution of an on-line education community of practice. To appear in K. A. Renninger & W. Shumar (Eds.), Building virtual communities: Learning and change in cyberspace. NY: Cambridge University Press.

Waddoups, G. L. (2000). Extending, adopting, and defending practitioner identities: K-12 teachers participating and learning in an online community of practice. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Champaign IL.

Weiner, R. S. (2000). Cybertimes education: Degrees granted online may lack status. New York Times. November 15, 2000.

We would like to thank University of Illinois Online, Ed-Online, the College of Education, and the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Illinois for their support of CTER OnLine and the evaluations reported in this paper. We also would like to thank the CTER OnLine students, faculty and support staff, without whom CTER OnLine would not be such a powerful context for learning and research. A special thank you goes to Tamara McLane, David Barber and Lynn Gilmore for permission to include portions of their video interviews in this paper.